Principles of Radiation Interaction in Matter and Detection

The following sections are included:

• Preface to the Third Edition

• Preface to the Second Edition

• Preface to the First Edition

• Contents

The following sections are included:

• Radiation and Particle Interactions

• Particles and Types of Interaction
  • Quarks and Leptons

• Relativistic Kinematics
  • The Two-Body Scattering
  • The Invariant Mass
    • Lorentz-Invariant Quantities and Phase Space
  • Relativistic Doppler Effect
    • Redshift Parameter and Astronomy

• Atomic Mass, Weight, Standard Weight and Mass Unit

• Cross Section and Differential Cross Section

• Coulomb Single-Scattering Cross Section
  • Rutherford's Formula and Average Energy Transferred

• Detectors and Large Experimental Apparata
  • Trigger, Monitoring, Data Acquisition, Slow Control
  • General Features of Particle Detectors and Detection Media
  • Radiation Environments and Silicon Devices

The following sections are included:

• Passage of Ionizing Particles through Matter
  • The Collision Energy-Loss of Massive Charged Particles
    • The Barkas–Andersen Effect
    • The Shell Correction Term
    • Energy-Loss Minimum, Density Effect and Relativistic Rise
    • Restricted Energy-Loss and Fermi Plateau
    • Energy-Loss Formula Jor Compound Materials
  • Energy-Loss Fluctuations
    • δ-Rays, Straggling Function, and Transport Equation
    • The Landau–Vavilov Solutions for the Transport Equation
    • The Most Probable Collision Energy-Loss for Massive Charged Particles
    • Improved Energy-Loss Distribution and Distant Collisions
    • Distant Collision Contribution to Energy Straggling in Thin Silicon Absorbers
    • Improved Energy-Loss Distribution for Multi-Particles in Silicon
  • Range of Heavy Charged Particles and Bragg Curve
  • Heavy Ions
    • Nuclear Stopping Power at Non-Relativistic Energies
    • Nuclear Stopping Power at Relativistic Energies
  • Ionization Yield in Gas Media
  • Passage of Electrons and Positrons through Matter
    • Collision Losses by Electrons and Positrons
    • Most Probable Energy-Loss of Electrons and Positrons
    • Practical Range of Electrons
  • Radiation Energy-Loss by Electrons and Positrons
    • The Landau-Pomeranchuk-Migdal Effect: The Bremsstrahlung Suppression
    • Collision and Radiation Stopping Powers
    • Radiation Yield and Bremsstrahlung Angular Distribution
    • Radiation Length and Complete Screening Approximation
    • Critical Energy

• Multiple and Extended Volume Coulomb Interactions
  • The Multiple Coulomb Scattering
  • Emission of Čerenkov Radiation
  • Emission of Transition Radiation

• Photon Interaction and Absorption in Matter
  • The Photoelectric Effect
    • The Auger Effect
  • The Compton Scattering
    • The Klein–Nishina Equation for Unpolarized Photons
    • Electron Binding Corrections to Compton and Rayleigh Scatterings
    • The Thomson Cross Section
    • Radiative Corrections and Double Compton Effect
    • Inverse Compton Scattering
    • Power Loss of Electrons due to Inverse Compton Scattering
  • Pair Production
    • Pair Production in the Field of a Nucleus
    • Pair Production in the Electron Field
    • Angular Distribution of Electron and Positron Pairs
  • Photonuclear Scattering, Absorption and Production
  • Attenuation Coefficients, Dosimetric and Radiobiological Quantities

• Electromagnetic Cascades in Matter
  • Phenomenology and Natural Units of Electromagnetic Cascades
  • Propagation and Diffusion of Electromagnetic Cascades in Matter
    • Rossi's Approximation B and Cascade Multiplication of Electromagnetic Shower
    • Longitudinal Development of the Electromagnetic Shower
    • Lateral Development of Electromagnetic Showers
    • Energy Deposition in Electromagnetic Cascades
  • Shower Propagation and Diffusion in Complex Absorbers

The following sections are included:

• General Properties of the Nucleus
  • Radius of Nuclei and the Liquid Droplet Model
    • Droplet Model and Semi-Empirical Mass Formula
  • Form Factor and Charge Density of Nuclei
  • Angular and Magnetic Moment, Shape of Nuclei
  • Stable and Unstable Nuclei
    • The β-Decay and the Nuclear Capture
    • The α-Decay
  • Fermi Gas Model and Nuclear Shell Model
    • γ Emission by Nuclei

• Phenomenology of Interactions on Nuclei at High Energy
  • Energy and A-Dependence of Cross Sections
    • Collision and Inelastic Length
  • Coherent and Incoherent Interactions on Nuclei
    • Kinematics for Coherent Condition
    • Coherent and Incoherent Scattering
  • Multiplicity of Charged Particles and Angular-Distribution of Secondaries
    • Rapidity and Pseudorapidity Distributions
  • Emission of Heavy Prongs
  • The Nuclear Spallation Process
  • Nuclear Temperature and Evaporation

• Hadronic Shower Development and Propagation in Matter
  • Phenomenology of the Hadronic Cascade in Matter
  • Natural Units in the Hadronic Cascade
  • Longitudinal and Lateral Hadronic Development

The following sections are included:

• Radiation Environments
  • High-Luminosity Machines Environments for Particle Physics Experiments
    • Ionization Process and LHC Collider Environment
    • Non-Ionization Processes, NIEL Scaling Hypothesis and Collider Environments
  • Space Radiation Environment
    • Solar Wind
    • Solar and Heliospheric Magnetic Field
    • Extension of the Heliosphere and the Earth Magnetosphere
    • Propagation of Galactic Cosmic Rays through Interplanetary Space
    • Diffusion Tensor
    • Modulated Differential Intensities of Cosmic Rays and Drift Velocity
    • Solar, Heliospheric and Galactic Cosmic Rays in the Interplanetary Space
    • Trapped Particles and Earth Magnetosphere
  • Neutron Spectral Fluence in Nuclear Reactor Environment
    • Fast Neutron Cross Section on Silicon
    • Energy Distribution of Reactor Neutrons and Classification

• Relevant Processes of Energy Deposition and Damage
  • NIEL and Displacement Damage
    • Knock-On Atoms and Displacement Cascade
    • Norgett–Robinson–Torrens Expression
    • Neutron Interactions
    • Interactions of Protons, α-Particles and Heavy-Isotopes
    • Electron Interactions
    • Damage Function
  • Radiation Induced Defects
  • Ionization Energy-Loss and NIEL Processes
    • Imparted Dose in Silicon
    • Ionization Damage

• Radiation Induced Defects and Modification of Silicon Bulk and p – n Junction Properties
  • Displacement Damage Effect on Minority Carrier Lifetime
  • Carrier Generation and Leakage Current
  • Diode Structure and Rectification Down to Cryogenic Temperature
    • Rectification Property Up to Large Fast-Neutron Fluences at Room Temperature
    • Large Radiation Damage and p-i-n Structure at Room Temperature
    • I – V Characteristics Down to Cryogenic Temperature
  • Complex Impedance of Junctions and Cryogenic Temperatures
  • Resistivity, Hall Coefficient and Hall Mobility at Large Displacement Damage
  • AFM Structure Investigation in Irradiated Devices

The following sections are included:

• Scintillators
  • Organic Scintillators
  • Inorganic Scintillators

• The Čerenkov Detectors
  • Threshold Čerenkov Detectors
  • Differential Čerenkov Detectors
  • Ring Imaging Čerenkov (RICH) Detectors

• Wavelength Shifters

• Transition Radiation Detectors (TRD)

• Scintillating Fibers

• Detection of the Scintillation Light

• Applications in Calorimetry

• Application in Time-of-Flight (ToF) Technique

The following sections are included:

• Basic Principles of Operation
  • Unpolarized p – n Junction
  • Polarized p – n Junction
  • Capacitance
  • Charge Collection Measurements
  • Charge Transport in Silicon Diodes
  • Leakage or Reverse Current
  • Noise Characterization of Silicon Detectors

• Charge Collection Efficiency and Hecht Equation

• Spectroscopic Characteristics of Standard Planar Detectors
  • Energy Resolution of Standard Planar Detectors

• Microstrip Detectors

• Pixel Detector Devices
  • The MediPix-Type Detecting Device
  • Examples of Application: Particle Physics
    • Electrons and Photons
    • Neutrons
    • Muons, Pions and Protons
    • α-Particles and Heavier Ions
    • Charge Sharing

• Photovoltaic and Solar Cells

• Neutrons Detection with Silicon Detectors
  • Principles of Neutron Detection with Silicon Detectors
    • Signal in Silicon Detectors for Thermal Neutrons
    • Signals in Silicon Detectors by Fast Neutrons
  • 3-D Neutron Detectors

• Radiation Effects on Silicon Semiconductor Detectors
  • MESA Radiation Detectors
    • Electrical Features of Planar MESA Detectors
    • Spectroscopic Characteristics of MESA Detectors
  • Results of Irradiation Tests of Planar MESA Detectors
  • Irradiation with Low-Energy Protons in High-Resistivity Silicon Detectors and NIEL

The following sections are included:

• Displacement Damage in Irradiated Bipolar Transistors
  • Transit Time of Minority Carriers Across the Base
  • Gain Degradation of Bipolar Transistors and Messenger–Spratt Equation
  • Surface and Total Dose Effects on the Gain Degradation of Bipolar Transistors
  • Generalized Messenger–Spratt Equation for Gain Degradation of Bipolar Transistors
    • Experimental Evidence of Approximate NIEL Scaling
  • Transistor Gain and Self-Annealing
  • Radiation Effects on Low-Resistivity Base Spreading-Resistance

• Single Event Effects
  • Classification of SEE
  • SEE in Spatial Radiation Environment
  • SEE in Atmospheric Radiation Environment
  • SEE in Terrestrial Radiation Environment
  • SEE Produced by Radioactive Sources
  • SEE in Accelerator Radiation Environment
  • SEE Generation Mechanisms
    • Direct Ionization
    • Indirect Ionization
    • Linear Energy Transfer (LET)
    • Sensitive Volume
    • Critical Charge
  • SEE Cross Section
    • Calculation of SEU Rate for Ions
    • Calculation of SEU Rate for Protons and Neutrons
  • SEE Mitigation

The following sections are included:

• The Ionization Chamber

• Recombination Effects
  • Germinate or Initial Recombination
  • Columnar Recombination
  • The Box Model
  • Recombination with Impurities

• Example of Ionization Chamber Application: The α-Cell
  • The α-Cell
  • Charge Measurement with the α-Cell
  • Examples of Pollution Tests Using the α-Cell

• Proportional Counters
  • Avalanche Multiplication

• Proportional Counters: Cylindrical Coaxial Wire Chamber

• Multiwire Proportional Chambers (MWPC)

• The Geiger–Mueller Counter

The following sections are included:

• Experimental Physics and Calorimetry
  • Natural Units in Shower Propagation

• Electromagnetic Sampling Calorimetry
  • Electromagnetic Calorimeter Response
  • The e/mip Ratio
    • e/mip Dependence on Z-Values of Readout and Passive Absorbers
    • e/mip Dependence on Absorber Thickness
  • e/mip Reduction in High-Z Sampling Calorimeters: The Local Hardening Effect

• Principles of Calorimetry with Complex Absorbers
  • The Filtering Effect and How to Tune the e/mip Ratio
  • e/mip Reduction by Combining Local Hardening and Filtering Effects

• Energy Resolution in Sampling Electromagnetic Calorimetry
  • Visible Energy Fluctuations
    • Calorimeter Energy Resolution for Dense Readout Detectors
    • Calorimeter Energy Resolution for Gas Readout Detectors
  • Effect of Limited Containment on Energy Resolution

• Homogeneous Calorimeters
  • General Considerations
  • Energy Measurement

• Position Measurement

• Electron Hadron Separation

• Hadronic Calorimetry
  • Intrinsic Properties of the Hadronic Calorimeter
    • The e/h, e/π, h/mip and π/mip Ratios
    • Compensating Condition e/h = e/π = 1 and Linear Response

• Methods to Achieve the Compensation Condition
  • Compensation Condition by Detecting Neutron Energy
  • Compensation Condition by Tuning the e/mip Ratio

• Compensation and Hadronic Energy Resolution
  • Non-Compensation Effects and the ø(e/π) Term
  • Determination of Effective Intrinsic Resolutions
  • Effect of Visible-Energy Losses on Calorimeter Energy Resolution

• Calorimetry at Very High Energy
  • General Considerations
  • Air Showers (AS) and Extensive Air Showers (EAS)
  • Electromagnetic Air Showers
    • Longitudinal Development
    • Lateral Development
  • Hadronic Extensive Air Showers
  • The Muon Component of Extensive Air Showers

The following sections are included:

• The Superheated Droplet Detectors and their Operation
  • Neutron Response Measurement
  • Alpha-Particle Response Measurement
  • Radon Detection
  • Spontaneous Nucleation
  • Signal Measurement with Piezoelectric Sensors

• Search of Cold Dark Matter (CDM)
  • Calculation of the Neutralino-Nucleon Exclusion Limits
    • Spin-Independent or Coherent Cross Section
    • Spin-Dependent or Incoherent Cross Section
    • Calculation of 〈S_p〉 and 〈S_n〉 in Nuclei
    • Shell Models Calculation and Validation of 〈S_p〉 and 〈S_n〉
  • The PICASSO Experiment, an Example
  • Status of Dark Matter Searches

• Double Beta Decay

The following sections are included:

• Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT)

• Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
  • Physical Basis of MRI
  • Forming an Image
    • Spin-Echo
    • Gradient-Echo
    • Space Positioning
    • Flows
    • Functional MRI

• X-Ray Medical Imaging with MediPix Devices
  • The Contrast
  • The Modulation Transfer Function
  • The Detective Quantum Efficiency

The following sections are included:

• Appendix A General Properties and Constants

• Appendix B Mathematics and Statistics

• Bibliography

• Index